{"id":2863,"date":"2023-04-23T19:23:51","date_gmt":"2023-04-23T19:23:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/elbespurling.com\/salvation\/?page_id=2863"},"modified":"2024-07-18T01:45:40","modified_gmt":"2024-07-18T01:45:40","slug":"10-inclusion-of-the-gentiles","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/elbespurling.com\/salvation\/?page_id=2863","title":{"rendered":"Chapter 10: Inclusion of the Gentiles"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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Chapter 10<\/mark><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Inclusion of the Gentiles<\/mark><\/h1>\n\n\n\n
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Tiberius, Caligula, and Agrippa<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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Artist depiction of Roman Emperor Tiberius<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

A grandson of King Herod named Agrippa\u2014in honor of Emperor Octavian\u2019s favorite general\u2014had been sent to live in Rome to receive his education. There he studied alongside the (future emperor) Tiberius\u2019s son as well as another future emperor, Claudius. But living recklessly and extravagantly, young Agrippa fell deeply into debt. He fled to Egypt and then to Judah, and was eventually able to beg, borrow, and steal enough funds to return to Rome. There he became tutor to Tiberius\u2019s grandson and also befriended yet another future emperor, the young Caligula.1<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Agrippa put in chains and imprisoned<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Despite his long reign as the second emperor of Rome, Tiberius is said to have never wanted the job, and the historian Pliny the Elder referred to him as \u201cthe gloomiest of men\u201d.2<\/a><\/sup>Pliny the Elder, Liber XXVIII<\/span> Now in his 70s and frail, Tiberius had moved away from the capital to reside on the small island of Capri off the coast of Naples.3<\/a><\/sup>Tacitus, The Annals, IV.67.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Meanwhile, at a feast one evening, Agrippa toasted Tiberius\u2019s designated heir Caligula, expressing a wish that the emperor would die already so that his friend could become the emperor of the world. Some servants who overheard this comment immediately reported it to Tiberius who ordered that Agrippa be put in chains and thrown in prison.4<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Emperor Caligula<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Six months later, in 37 CE, the 77-year-old Tiberius fell ill. When it looked as though there was a chance he might recover, Caligula and a conspirator smothered him to death with his pillow. A grand funeral was held, and then due to Tiberius\u2019s unpopularity, his 25-year-old grand-nephew Caligula was warmly welcomed as Rome\u2019s third emperor. Immediately upon his ascension, Agrippa was freed from prison and awarded chains of gold to replace the iron chains with which he\u2019d been bound. He was also given a monarchy in Judah.5<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Map of King Agrippa\u2019s realm (in blue) at the height of his power<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Soon after Agrippa returned to his homeland to reign as king, he took aim at his uncle Antipas\u2014the ethnarch who had John the Baptist executed, accusing him of having spoken against Emperor Caligula. As a result, his uncle Antipas was stripped of his position, and banished to Gaul (France). His forfeited kingdom on the eastern side of the Jordan River was then awarded by Caligula to Agrippa, making his realm now approach the size of that once ruled by Herod or the Maccabean kings.6<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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A caligae as worn by Roman soldiers<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Despite being known to history as \u201cCaligula\u201d, this was actually only a nickname. Being the son of a highly respected general, as a small child, the future emperor traveled with the army on a campaign against the Germans. As a sign of respect, they dressed him as a sort of miniature legionary, from head to toe, including the caligae sandals worn by the soldiers. For this reason he became known among the legionaries as Caligula (\u201clittle boots\u201d).7<\/a><\/sup>Suetonius, Caligula 9.<\/span> This moniker stuck, perhaps because it helped people, then and now, distinguish him from his even more famous ancestor of the exact same name, Gaius Julius Caesar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of obelisk being erected in Rome<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

In the first 6 months of his reign, Caligula was considered a moderate ruler, making egalitarian reforms, and even reestablishing some amount of democracy in government. He launched several notable construction projects8<\/a><\/sup>Suetonius. Caligula 21.<\/span>\u2014and also had a massive obelisk taken from its home in Egypt and re-erected as the centerpiece of a grand chariot racing stadium in Rome where it still stands today in what is now the Plaza of Saint Peter in Vatican City.9<\/a><\/sup>Pliny the Elder. XVI.76.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Caligula\u2019s floating palace<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

He also built one of the largest ships in the ancient world which acted as a floating palace with floors of marble\u2014and which survived until its destruction during World War II.10<\/a><\/sup>Carlson, D.N. Caligula’s Floating Palaces. Archaeology. May\/June 2002, Vol. 55, Issue 3<\/span> On the military front, Caligula expanded the borders of the empire with conquests in Northern Africa, and continued campaigns to control the island of Britain.11<\/a><\/sup>Suetonius, Caligula 7.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Caligula and The Jews<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

By 40 CE, however, Caligula\u2019s reign took a turn. During a political feud, he made a purge of his enemies in the Senate, executing some and publicly degrading others.12<\/a><\/sup>Barrett, A.A. (2015). Caligula: the abuse of power. London: Routledge.<\/span> He then began making public appearances dressed as various gods, demanding to be worshiped.13<\/a><\/sup>Philo, On the Embassy<\/em> XI\u2013XV.<\/span> While his predecessor Tiberius had promoted the cult of Octavian across the empire, he never showed any inclination to be worshiped himself. And though Julius Caesar and his successor Octavian had been deified upon their death, Caligula did not care to wait so long. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Philo Judaeus in Rome representing the Jews of Alexandria<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Meanwhile in Egypt the large Jewish population in Alexandria had been facing a series of increasingly violent attacks from the majority Greek inhabitants over the course of the past two years, and the situation was getting worse. An intellectual named Apion had written to the emperor making all manner of anti-Jewish accusations, including the slanders that they ritually kill and eat babies, and secretly worship the head of a donkey. He also accused them of disloyalty to the emperor in their refusal to worship him. To defend against the charges, the Alexandrian Jews sent a delegation to Caligula headed by the same Philo Judaeus whose writings we earlier examined. But upon their arrival, the emperor refused to even listen to them.14<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Roman governor in Alexandria at this time was a man named Flaccus. Caligula did not like or trust him, and so he asked his friend King Agrippa in Judah to pay him an unannounced visit to check on him. But on arrival, the Gentile masses of Caesarea jeered at Agrippa, taking him to be the King of the Jews. Flaccus, in an attempt to placate the majority of the people and the emperor, now ordered the Jews to put statues of Caligula in every one of their synagogues. This prompted the Jews to riot. Caligula was furious at both sides. He had Flaccus executed, but also ordered that large statues of himself now be erected inside the Temple of Jerusalem.15<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Statues of Emperor Caligula, colorized to approximate their original appearance<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Soon after, Caligula sent a trusted senator named Petronius with these statues of the emperor to Judah accompanied by three full Roman legions given orders to kill anyone attempting to stop them from installing the statues in the Temple. A massive crowd of Jews met Petronias when he and his forces landed at a port city in Galilee, begging him not to continue on to Jerusalem. In the face of his army, they told him they were prepared to die along with their wives and children rather than allow their sacred laws to be broken in such a grievous manner. Petronius pointed out to them that all other peoples across the empire had complied with the emperor\u2019s orders, and he demanded they show the same loyalty else they would be seen as being in revolt. The Jews pointed out that twice-a-day sacrifices were made in the Temple on behalf of the emperor and Rome.16<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Caligula reacting to news from Petronius<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Petronius was moved by the resolve of the crowds, and promised he would write to the emperor, knowing he was risking his own life in doing so. Caligula indeed did not take the senator\u2019s message kindly. In great anger he had a return letter sent ordering Petronius\u2019s execution and commanding that preparations be made for war against the Jews. The ship carrying this letter, however, was significantly delayed, and before it arrived, news from another ship reached Petronius that Emperor Caligula was dead. The three legions with him in Judah were now summoned to return home to keep order in the empire\u2019s capital.17<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Agrippa and Claudius<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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Artist depiction of the assassination of Caligula<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Caligula had been assassinated by a conspiracy of senators and members of his own personal guard who hoped his death would allow a restoration of the Roman Republic. To prevent his potential successors from claiming the throne, the conspirators saw to it that all the members of his family were murdered as well. Only his uncle Claudius\u2014who, with a limp and partial deafness, Caligula had treated as a laughing stock\u2014survived the slaughter.18<\/a><\/sup>Levick, B. (2015). Claudius. Routledge.<\/span> He was found by a sympathetic member of the imperial guard hiding behind a palace curtain, and quickly taken to safety. While many Romans shared the conspirator\u2019s wish to restore the republic, the military had thrived under imperial rule, and they backed Claudius as successor.19<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of a member of the praetorian guard discovering Claudius hiding to avoid being massacred, and hailing him as the new emperor<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Visiting Rome at the time, King Agrippa then spoke before the senate on behalf of his longtime friend Claudius. The conspirator\u2019s hopes of restoring the republic would not be possible with the military aligned against it, he pointed out. To avoid a bloody civil war that they were bound to lose, Agrippa urged the senators to accept Claudius\u2014as he would at least rule the empire in a sane and moderate fashion. Reluctant but sufficiently persuaded, the senate recognized Claudius as fourth emperor of Rome. In thanks, Agrippa was rewarded with additional territories for his realm, causing its size to rival that of his grandfather Herod. The king also began work on a new defensive wall surrounding Jerusalem, strong enough to fend off even a Roman siege. But this gave Claudius unease, and he put a stop to the project before it was finished.20<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Simon’s meeting with Agrippa<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Agrippa was, for the most part, accepted by the people of Judah, despite his being the hated tyrant Herod\u2019s grandson. Early in his reign, however, a Jewish historian of the time reports that a certain man named Simon\u2014described as \u201cthe head of an ekklesia\u201d and considered \u201cvery knowledgeable of  the Law of Moses\u201d\u2014made public denouncements against the king, declaring him unworthy to enter the inner precinct of the Temple where Gentiles are strictly forbidden from entering on pain of death. Agrippa, hoping to rule with persuasion rather than force, responded by summoning this Simon to sit with him in the theater in Caesarea. There the king managed to convince him of his devout loyalty to Jewish law, and the matter was at least temporarily resolved.21<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The brevity and limited detail of this story does not allow us to draw any solid conclusion, but it is an intriguing possibility that this ekklesia leader called here “Simon” was none other than apostle Peter (who is referred to as \u201cSimon Peter\u201d in the gospels). This would match the portrait of the earliest Christians being members of established Essene communities strongly devoted to the Law of Moses, and of Peter as a leader of such a community in Jerusalem, respected and influential enough that a local king would feel obliged to mollify him with reassurances of his devout Jewish religiosity.22<\/a><\/sup>Eisenman, R.H. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Paul Begins His Missionary Activities<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

After Paul\u2019s conversion, followed by his lengthy time in Arabia and Damascus, and then his 15-day stay in Jerusalem where, he says, he saw two of the \u201cPillars of the Church\u201d Peter and James,23<\/a><\/sup>Galatians 1:18-19<\/a>. The Bible. New International Version.<\/span> Paul next traveled north. He fell in with a group of believers at Antioch in Syria,24<\/a><\/sup>Acts 11:25-26<\/a>. The Bible. New International Version.<\/span> close to his home city of Tarsus. The book of Acts mentions that, like Paul himself, one of his fellow church members there had ties to King Herod\u2019s family, having been raised alongside one of Herod\u2019s sons.25<\/a><\/sup>Acts 13:1<\/a>. The Bible. New International Ve<\/span> Antioch would become Paul\u2019s base of operations for at least the next year. It is likely that it was as early as this period that Paul\u2019s preaching began to markedly diverge from the ekklesia in Jerusalem in regards to the appropriateness of converting Gentiles, keeping the Law of Moses, and in particular, the practice of circumcision. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Queen Helena of Adiabene<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

During this period a woman named Queen Helena was ruler of the nation Adiabene\u2014just south of Armenia, strategically located as a buffer nation between the Roman  and Parthian empires. Her son and chosen heir was named Izates. A Jewish historian living at this time recounts the story of a certain man named Ananias who traveled from Judah to the region where prince Izates was living. There he successfully converted a number of his women subjects to Judaism, and eventually Izates himself.26<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span> (While today we do not think of Judaism as a proselytizing religion, it was not until later laws were passed against it by the Romans and later powers that this became the case.27<\/a><\/sup>Goodman, M. (1995). Mission and Conversion: Proselytizing in the Religious History of the Roman Empire, Clarendon Paperbacks.<\/span>) Ananias is then said to have told Izates that circumcision is not necessary for him, only his \u201cworship of the true God\u201d.28<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of the circumcision of Prince Izates of Adiabene<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

We are then told that after some time, a man named Eleazar from Galilee visited the court at Adiabene and came across Izates reading the Laws of Moses. He told the recently-converted prince it was a shame he was not obeying what he read, instructing him that it was imperative that he become circumcised as soon as possible. Zealous in his new faith, Izates immediately summoned a doctor who performed the surgery. (His mother, Queen Helena, also became a convert soon after, and in the coming years she and her family would prove to be important allies to the Jews.)29<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

What is of particular interest about this story is that the book of Acts also presents a story about a man named Ananias who is associated with the conversion of Paul on the way to Damascus.30<\/a><\/sup>Acts 9:10-18<\/a>. The Bible. New International Version.<\/span> Scholars have generally considered these two men named Ananias to be different people\u2014after all, one is associated with someone converting to Judaism, the other with someone converting to Christianity. But at this early date, circa 45 CE, both Paul\u2019s and Izates\u2019s conversion would have been seen as conversions to Judaism, for, as even the book of Acts tells us, the term “Christians” was not yet in use\u2014they were not yet seen as members of a separate religion. With this in mind, a picture emerges of a church in Antioch in which men like Ananias and his protege Paul were proselytizing to Gentiles like Izates, spreading their particular form of messianic Judaism which downplayed the need for strictly following the laws of Moses such as circumcision, while at the same time men like James, Peter, and this Eleazar\u2014coming from an Essene background in which the strict obedience to all aspects of the Law of Moses is paramount\u2014are visiting men like Izates and demanding his immediate circumcision.31<\/a><\/sup>Eisenman, R.H. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Peter sharing a table with Gentiles before James’s messengers arrive<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The necessity of circumcision, following the Laws of Moses, and keeping oneself separate from the company with Gentiles to avoid ritual pollution were to become the defining issues driving apart Paul and the founders of Christ-belief in Jerusalem. Paul relates in one of his epistles that Peter paid a visit to Antioch and was eating his meals among some converts who were Gentiles. But when other men arrived who were sent by James, Peter began eating separately. Paul boasts that he called out Peter\u2019s hypocrisy to his face, and mocks him in his letter for being \u201cafraid\u201d of those sent by James.32<\/a><\/sup>Galatians 2:11-21<\/a>. The Bible. New International <\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Paul soon after leaves Antioch to go on his first missionary journey, traveling to cities with significant Jewish populations in central and southern Asia Minor and the island of Cypress.33<\/a><\/sup>Paul’s First Missionary Journey Map. https:\/\/www.biblestudy.org\/maps\/pauls-first-journey-map.html<\/a><\/span> He mainly visits synagogues and expends most of his efforts attempting to make converts to Christ-belief among a group known as \u201cGod-Fearers\u201d\u2014a name applied to Gentiles who regularly attend synagogues but who have not yet converted. Later on, a story is related\u2014in vague terms\u2014about a bitter falling out Paul has with a Jewish traveling companion named John Mark who decides to leave the journey and return to Jerusalem.34<\/a><\/sup>Acts 15:36-41<\/a>. The Bible. New International Version.<\/span> From this point on Paul would travel almost exclusively with those described either as half-Jewish or those who were fully Gentile.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Map of the route and destinations of Paul\u2019s first missionary journey as pieced together from his letters and the later book of Acts<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The \u201cgospel\u201d of Jesus Christ preached by Paul to the Gentiles was, at its core, seemingly very similar to that being taught by James and Peter. He describes it as \u201cthe revelation of the mystery that had been kept secret for long ages, but now is disclosed\u201d to apostles like him “through the prophetic writings”. The heavenly messiah Son of God has existed since the very beginning, but it is only now in this Final Age that God is allowing his existence to become known to a select few like himself, sent out as messengers. And by what mechanism does Paul say Jesus\u2019s existence is being revealed? \u201cThrough the prophetic scriptures,\u201d and through visions.35<\/a><\/sup>Romans 16:25-26<\/a>. The Bible. New International Version.<\/span> For Paul and all the earliest Christians, these two methods are\u2014until Jesus appears in glory on the clouds with his army of angels\u2014the only ways humans have access to knowledge of the savior.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of Paul preaching to a Gentile crowd concerning The Law of Moses<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

While Paul, Peter, and James share that core understanding of the revelation of Lord Jesus Christ, they do not at all agree on the implications concerning how humans should behave in the short time before the world ends. Those of the Jerusalem church are fanatically devout Essenes who believe that strict adherence to every last little bit of the Law of Moses is required to be among the elect who will be rewarded with eternal life in heaven on Judgment Day. Paul, however, whose background is more worldly and cosmopolitan, is their polar opposite on this matter, and considers the Law of Moses to have effectively been rendered a relic of the past to be discarded.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Apostle to the Gentiles<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

While Paul was away on his first missionary journey, between 45 and 47 CE, a famine struck the entire Levant, causing great suffering. The recent convert Queen Helena of Adiabene came to the rescue of the Jews, sending her agents to Egypt to purchase huge amounts of grain for the populace. Pious in her family’s new faith, the queen made frequent trips to Jerusalem, even having a palace built for herself in the city.36<\/a><\/sup>Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.<\/span> In thanks for her great efforts in saving countless lives from starvation, after her eventual death, a great mausoleum was constructed in her honor along the approach to the city walls of Jerusalem, the foundation of which can still be visited to this day.37<\/a><\/sup>Eisenman, R.H. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of famine<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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Reconstruction of ancient Jerusalem palace built by Queen Helena<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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Photo of the remains of the tomb of Queen Helena of Adiabene outside Jerusalem<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Having collected famine relief funds from communities he visited on his journey, Paul now returned to Antioch. While there, men sent from Jerusalem arrived and began to preach that \u201cunless you are circumcised according to the custom taught by Moses, you cannot be saved.\u201d  In his writings, Paul describes these men as \u201cfalse brothers with false pretenses\u201d who snuck in to \u201cspy on the freedom that we have in Christ Jesus\u201d and \u201cto make us slaves.\u201d Immediately following this, Paul writes that for the first time in 14 years, he decided to go to Jerusalem. As if protesting too much, he repeatedly insists that he\u2019s going of his own accord\u2014not because he was summoned by the \u201cso-called pillars\u201d. Nonetheless, what follows is a meeting of apostles in which James is clearly in charge.38<\/a><\/sup>Galatians 2:1-5<\/a>. The Bible. New International Version.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Artist depiction of James speaking at the Jerusalem council<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Paul would later portray the Council of Jerusalem\u2014as it has come to be called\u2014as a victory for him, claiming to have won the approval of James and Peter after explaining to them that he had received a divine calling to act as Apostle to the Gentiles, just as Peter had been called to preach to the circumcised.39<\/a><\/sup>Galatians 2:6-9<\/a>. The Bible. New International Version<\/span> Whether or not Paul\u2019s account is trustworthy is debatable, especially given that his relations with the Jerusalem leadership only deteriorated from here.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to the book of Acts, this council came to a close with James resolving that a letter will be drafted to the communities abroad that will clearly set forth the requirements for a prospective member to join the church and participate in its rituals. They must:<\/p>\n\n\n\n