Chapter 7

Awaiting a Savior

Archelaus Loses Control Before He Has It

Artist depiction of Archelaus listening to the demands of the people

Herod’s funeral was presided over by his son and heir Archelaus. Afterward, he went to the Temple, sat on a golden throne, and spoke in kind words to the large crowds gathered there, promising to be a better ruler than his father had been. Since he seemed well-intentioned, but didn’t provide any specifics, the people began to petition him for things like lower taxes, the release of people his father had imprisoned, the replacement of Herod’s high priest with a more pure and devout one, and justice for the families of those Herod had burned and executed for tearing down the golden eagle.¹

Archelaus was taken aback, and avoided making any promises to the crowd, reminding them he would have to travel to Rome for his succession to be approved by the emperor before he could act as king. Unsatisfied by this response, the crowd became unruly. One of Archelaus’s generals was sent to exhort the crowd into silence, but before he could speak, a cascade of rocks were thrown at him, driving him inside the Temple to take shelter. Other envoys who were sent out to the crowd got treated the same way.²

Artist depiction of a Roman cohort brought by Archelaus to the Temple of Passover

Before the designated heir of Herod was to leave for Rome, the Passover festival drew tens of thousands of Jews into Jerusalem from all over Judah, Galilee, and cities across the eastern Mediterranean and Near East. They celebrated, but also mourned those who had heroically given their lives to uphold the Law of Moses by pulling down Herod’s eagle. Knowing that the people were already bordering on rebellion, Archelaus felt compelled to quash any signs of public disturbance before it could break out into a deadly riot. So he arranged for a Roman tribune to patrol the Temple grounds with his regiment of troops, ordering them to use whatever force necessary to quiet the crowds.³

Artist depiction of Archelaus’s horsemen charging into the Temple

At the sight of Roman soldiers in the Temple, the mass of pilgrims became incensed and pelted them with stones, killing many of them, and causing the wounded tribune to flee. The crowd then went back to offering sacrifices as if nothing had happened. Outraged, Archelaus now ordered his own soldiers and horsemen to attack the people, and many hundreds were killed. The survivors escaped to the mountains then dispersed to their homes. Then Archelaus sailed for Rome to be confirmed as king.⁴

Artist depiction of Jews throwing stones onto Roman soldiers

The emperor’s steward named Sabinus arrived in Judah at this time with a legion of Roman soldiers (about 5,500 troops and 1,000 support staff), nominally to act as executor of Herod’s will. But it soon became clear he was attempting to take control of Herod’s fortresses to enrich himself with the treasures stored within. 50 days after the massacre at Passover, Jews gathered in Jerusalem again at the feast of Pentecost. But they did not come to feast. They split themselves into three camps to lure the Romans into a trap. The portion of the crowds in the Temple were attacked by the expertly-trained Roman legion, and many were slaughtered. But the Jews who climbed on top of the portico roof threw their spears and slung stones, inflicting much harm on their enemy. The Roman archers had difficulty firing on those above them, so instead they set the whole courtyard roof ablaze. Some Jews burned alive, others leapt down and were killed fighting the Romans directly. Others died when the roof soon collapsed.⁵

Artist depiction of a crowd of angry Jews threatening to burn down the Temple

The other two camps of Jews on pilgrimage now surrounded the Temple and began laying siege to it. They threatened to destroy the whole building, and shouted at the Romans to leave Judah and allow the Jews to reestablish their independent nation. Sabinus was terrified, but held out hope that reinforcements would arrive from Syria before it was too late. Meanwhile, other revolts broke out seemingly everywhere.⁶

The Revolt Against Rome and Archelaus

At the city of Sepphoris, a man named Judas of Galilee assembled a large rebel army. He was the son of Hezekias who years earlier had been killed by Herod when he flushed out the families of rebels living in the highland caves and slaughtered them. Judas broke into the city’s armory to supply his men with weapons to attack the Romans.⁷

Artist depiction of Simon of Perea and his followers celebrating as Herod’s winter palace burns

A charismatic man named Simon of Perea—who was a former slave of Herod—gathered some followers and put a crown on his head. He stole everything of value from Herod’s winter palace in Jericho, and then burned it to the ground. He traveled around Judah to many of the king’s other houses and did the same to them, giving away the spoils to others. He would have continued these activities, but a cohort led by one of Herod’s generals named Gratus found and attacked his forces. Simon’s men fought zealously, but were not trained soldiers and were quickly defeated. Simon himself was decapitated by the general.⁸

Artist depiction of Athronges the Shepherd and his followers

Another charismatic known as Athronges the Shepherd also claimed himself king. He is reputed to have had no fear of death, and he amassed a small army with each of his four brothers as captains over companies of men who were battle disciplined. They would attack the king’s soldiers and the Romans alike, despising both. Five miles west of Jerusalem at Emmaus, Athronges led an attack on a Roman convoy, killing a centurion and forty highly trained soldiers. But these rebels too were eventually defeated by Gratus and his men.⁹

Artist depiction of Varus turning from the burning city of Sepphoris toward Jerusalem

Roman reinforcements then arrived in the form of two additional legions led by a man named Varus who was governor of Syria. He first attacked the rebels at Sepphoris, burning the city down, taking the inhabitants captive, and selling them into slavery. He also burnt down Emmaus on his way to Jerusalem to rescue the Romans soldiers trapped there from the throngs of Pentecost pilgrims holding them under siege.¹⁰

Artist depiction of a mass crucifixion of Jewish rebels

Varus had been joined by another large contingent of local troops from Beirut, and when the rebels surrounding the Temple saw the size of the forces heading their way, they ended the siege and dispersed throughout the countryside. Nonetheless, Varus managed to capture about 2,000 of them and had them all executed by crucifixion.¹¹

Around the turn of the millennium from 1 BCE to 1 CE there was a young, handsome, muscular Jewish freed slave from the Phoenician city of Tyre who bore such an uncanny resemblance to Herod’s son Alexander that people often mistook him for the prince who had been executed along with his brother Aristobulus years before. ¹²

Artist depiction of a mentor training a young look-alike to impersonate Alexander

He traveled to Rome and met with a man who had known the real Alexander and who then coached the look-alike on how to walk, talk, and behave so as to be a more convincing impostor. They then traveled to the large Jewish community on the Greek island of Crete where even those who had known Alexander during his life were convinced it was him. The people there enthusiastically supported his claim to the throne of Judah, raised a great deal of money for him, and sent him off to meet with the emperor in Rome.¹³

Artist depiction of the aging Emperor Octavian examining the hand of the Alexander imposter

The 60-year-old Octavian Caesar was extremely skeptical, but agreed to meet the man. When questioned, the imposter explained that his executioners had smuggled his brother and him out of Judah to Crete to keep them safe from their father. Aristobulus had not come with him, he explained, so that just in case their ship sank, one of them would survive to reclaim the throne. The emperor marveled at the resemblance, and was amused by the craftiness of this plot, but he observed the man’s hands were rough like a slave’s rather than soft like those of royalty. He decided to have the young man’s scheming assistant executed, while the strong young man was allowed to live, but forced to become an oarsman on one of Octavian’s galley ships.¹⁴

Peak Messianism Begins

Artist depiction of a conquering angelic savior

The first 100 years CE are undoubtedly the era during which Jewish expectations for the immediate appearance of a holy messiah figure bringing salvation were at their most popular and most fevered. And this doctrine, first imported into Judaism from Zoroastrianism at least two hundred years before, would shape the destiny of our world. There was a wide range of varying beliefs about who the messiah would be and what exactly he would accomplish. For instance, many believed it would be an especially holy human man who would lead the Jews to conquer their enemies. Others expected a heavenly figure to descend to earth with an army of angels to defeat Satan and all the forces of darkness, an event that would be followed by the resurrection of all who had ever lived so that they could be judged and spend eternity in Heaven or Hell.¹⁵

Artist depiction of the grandiose biblical scale miracle some Jews hoped would usher in divine salvation

Some seem to have believed the participation of the forces of Heaven would not begin until a human messiah performed a miracle or led the Jews against Rome and the other nations of the world. There is not enough evidence to know for certain, but based on the attitudes and actions of those who came soon after them, it’s possible that figures like Judas of Galilee, Simon of Perea, Athronges the Shepherd—who led fanatical religious followers against an impossibly strong enemy without fear of death—were seen by their followers as the messiah they had been awaiting. Even the imposter Alexander may have been seen by his fervent supporters as a miraculous messiah figure who died and was alive again.¹⁶

A section of the Dead Sea Scrolls concerning the imminent coming of the messiah

This expectation of a messiah was not exclusive to the fundamentalist Zadokites and Essenes sects—who held as sacred scripture the doctrines found in writings like The Book of Watchers, the Enoch apocalypses, Jubilees, and the Dead Sea Scrolls. This was by now in the early first century CE a majority Jewish view, greatly motivating revolts against the Romans—for the Pharisees, too, eagerly awaited some form of messiah based on a few key passages in the traditional Hebrew writings of scripture. The book of Deuteronomy includes a passage where God says to Moses:

I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brothers. I will put my words in his mouth, and he will tell them everything I command them. If anyone does not listen to my words that the prophet speaks in my name, I myself will call him to account.
Deuteronomy 18:18-19

Though it’s unambiguous in context that God is referring to Moses’s immediate successor Joshua, such context was often brushed aside when Jews of this time looked to their scriptures for clues about the messiah and the End Time. Interpreters believed they had discovered the true hidden meaning of such passages—that they had been intentionally written with a double meaning intended to be decoded by people of their time.¹⁷ By far the most influential of these passages was the so-called Star Prophecy:

A star will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel. He will crush the foreheads of Moab, the skulls of all the people of Sheth.
Numbers 24:17¹⁸

A messianic star was featured on Maccabean coins as far back as 100 BCE. And the first Maccabean leader took his office under the stipulation that he would step aside when God’s messiah arose. A Jewish historian who lived through much of the first century CE credited this prophecy as having been the driving force behind all the upheavals of his time, saying the Jews believed it to be God’s promise that a messiah would arise in Palestine and rule the world.¹⁹

The Tax Revolt

Map of the Roman Empire just before Judah came under direct rule

In 6 CE, the continued complaints from the Jews against the cruelty of King Archelaus convinced the emperor to simply abolish the troublesome Judahite monarchy completely. Archelaus was exiled and lived out the rest of his days in Gaul (near what is today Lyons, France). His kingdom and its surrounding areas were reincorporated as an official province of the Roman Empire rather than a vassal kingdom. The Jews were now under direct Roman rule, and as with any new province, an administrator was sent to conduct a census of the land for the purposes of proper taxation.²⁰

Artist depiction of Judas of Galilee and a Pharisee teacher urging resistance to the Roman taxation

Though the high priest Joazar urged the people to comply with the tax census, many were unwilling. The rebel leader Judas of Galilee, acting along with an influential Zadokite and a Pharisee teacher, now led a new revolt that attracted a large number of supporters. He rejected Roman rule completely, arguing that his fellow Jews should submit to God alone and not to any mortal man, and he berated those willing to pay taxes to the Romans as cowards.²¹

Artist depiction of Jews paying their taxes to the local Roman magistrate

The right to appoint the high priest had traditionally been the king’s prerogative, and the Romans did not return this right to the Jews when the monarchy ended. The general Quirinius who had been put in charge of the tax census deposed Joazar from the high priesthood, installing in his place a priest named Ananus ben Seth.²² The Gospel of Luke would later date the birth of Jesus to the time of this census, claiming that all Jews were required to return to their places of birth to be registered.²³ Such a policy would be wildly impractical and is nowhere attested in the ancient world—and it acts as an obvious plot device to get Jesus’s parents from the unknown town of Nazareth to Bethlehem so he can be born in the hometown of the legendary King David where some Jews believed the messiah would be born.²⁴ Luke’s dating of Jesus’s birth is also in direct conflict to that of the Gospel of Matthew which claims he was born more than ten years earlier when Herod was still an active king.²⁵

Pontius Pilate

In 14 CE, upon the death of the first Roman Emperor, Octavian Caesar, at age 75, his adopted son Tiberius Caesar succeeded him. Several years into his reign, the troublesome province of Judah needed a new governor, so a man named Pontius Pilate was sent, and he took up residence in Caesarea, the lavish seaport city Herod had built.²⁶

One of Pilate’s responsibilities as a Roman provincial governor was the promotion of the Imperial Cult. Such propaganda programs had met with much success elsewhere in the empire, but this new governor must have been aware that Jewish sensibilities might make this a more precarious undertaking, and he had his men work under cover of night to give the city a makeover.²⁷

Artist depiction of Pilate’s decorating Jerusalem with profane imperial propaganda

The next morning, however, the people of Jerusalem were shocked and horrified to find their holy city decked out with images of the emperor and imperial banners whose decoration included images of living creatures. As word quickly spread, Jews from the countryside rushed to join those in the city for a march to Caesarea to beg the governor to undo what he had done.²⁸

Artist depiction of Pontius Pilate sitting on his judgment seat

Sitting in his tribunal in the outdoor marketplace, Pilate listened to their words, but denied their request flat out. In response, the Jews laid themselves on the ground en masse and would not move for five days and nights. On the sixth day Pilate returned to his judgment seat. The people again made their plea, but now Pilate signaled for his hidden troops to surround the group. The Jews returned to the ground, saying they’d all prefer death rather than allow their sacred laws to be broken. Pilate was moved by the devotion they showed to their superstition, and relented.²⁹

Artist depiction of the aftermath of Pontius Pilate using ununiformed men to beat the Jewish protesters with cudgels

On another occasion, Pilate had a huge amount of money removed from the Temple treasury in order to have a 50-mile aqueduct constructed to supply fresh water to Caesarea on the coast. Now an even larger number of Jews marched to protest this before Pilate at his tribunal, and this time they were far more unruly and upset, yelling insults at the governor. So as to mix among the crowds unnoticed, Pilate now had his soldiers wear plainclothes and carry hidden clubs. At his signal, they used their weapons to attack the crowd indiscriminately. Many were killed or wounded from beatings, and yet more were trampled to death in the panic to escape.

Artist depiction of Roman cavalry blockading the Samaritans from Mount Gerizim

Some time later, there arose a Samaritan Israelite who gathered many followers. He announced that he would lead them up the sacred Mount Gerizim, and there uncover holy vessels that Moses had buried ages ago. Learning of this, Pilate sent troops and cavalry to block their march, and in an ensuing scuffle, some of them died. As punishment, the leaders among these Samaritans were rounded up and killed.³⁰ The Samaritan religion, as previously noted, is very close to that of the Jews though they accept only Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy as scripture, rejecting the many other books that would be incorporated into the Hebrew bible. But also having come under the influence of Zoroastrianism during the Persian Period, they too adopted the doctrine of a coming messiah (or “taheb” in their terminology) who would appear at the End Time as a miracle-working prophet and king.³¹

Modern Samaritan Israelites at the summit of Mount Gerizim

This Samaritan Israelite may well have been seen by his followers as a messianic figure. It is otherwise difficult to explain why Pilate would have acted as he did, or paid any attention to his group at all. But in the aftermath, upon receiving complaints from the Samaritan local government, Pilate was sent off to Rome to answer for himself before Tiberius. But before he could arrive, the 77-year-old emperor died in 37 CE. Pilate was not returned to Judah, after this, and his ultimate fate is unknown.

John the Baptist and the Essenes

Artist depiction of John the Baptist exhorting a crowd by the Jordan River

Around this same time, a man known to history only as John the Baptist was attracting great crowds of Jews who came to hear his teachings and receive his ritual baptism in the Jordan River.³² Three main pieces of evidence—John’s peculiar clothing and diet; his use of the rite of baptism to purify Jews in preparation for the End Time; and his exhortation to repent and live an ethically pure life in the short time before the messiah arrives in judgment—point to the conclusion that John was a member of the Essene sect. Since his location along the Jordan was close to the Essene’s desert camp at Qumran next to the caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, he may have lived there, though this cannot be known for certain.³³

Ritual baths at the ruins of the Essene settlement near where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered

As we have seen, the Essenes lived in all sorts of locations. They seem to have originally established their wilderness communities as Zadokite priests in exile. They rejected as invalid any high priests appointed by foreign powers, be it Seleucids, Herod, or Romans. In some of their strictest communities, they separated themselves from the rest of society in order to maintain the highest possible ethics—banishing any member who broke even a single law given by Moses—and they kept the highest level of ritual purity, treating their entire community as if it were the innermost area of the Temple. The ritual of baptism by immersion in cold water was central to the sect’s way of life.³⁴

Essenes believed their mission to be one of constant study of the scriptures as a means of atonement for all Jews. Their collection of scriptures included many texts that would later be rejected by mainstream Judaism—those espousing the doctrines imported from Zoroastrianism. They viewed the world in terms of forces of darkness ever in opposition to the forces of light. They believed that God, for reasons that were a holy mystery, had temporarily given the world over to Satan and his minions, and that it would remain that way until the End Times would bring their final defeat.³⁵

Artist depiction of the archangel Michael leading the forces of light againsnt the forces of darkness

They eagerly awaited this final conflagration, even writing in detail about the battle plans that would be used by their community and the army of angels from Heaven to defeat the Romans and all other foreign powers who are in league with the forces of darkness. The Essenes saw themselves as playing a vital role in speeding the arrival of the messiah, believing their desert camps were fulfilling the command found in the book of the prophet Isaiah: “In the wilderness, clear a way for Yahweh. Prepare a smooth road though the desert for our God”—the exact words John the Baptist proclaims in the gospels.³⁶

Map showing the separated realm of Herod Antipas in green

While Judah itself was now under direct Roman rule, Galilee and the land to the east of the Jordan—where John was baptizing—were under the jurisdiction of Antipas, another son of Herod. He had been married to an Arab princess of Nabataea, but then fell in love with his own niece who was the spouse of his brother. Both couples divorced so Antipas could marry his niece Herodias.³⁷ The Essenes were strictly against divorce and even more vehemently objected to the common foreign royal practice of marriage between an uncle and niece.³⁸ John the Baptist publicly spoke out against Antipas for these things, leading to his arrest.³⁹

Artist depiction of the execution of John the Baptist

Antipas is said to have worried that the throngs who flocked to the Baptist might break out in revolt because they were prepared to do anything John asked of them. For this reason he decided to have John executed. Soon afterward, the Nabateans, angered by his divorce of the Arab princess, attacked Antipas, destroying his army completely. Many Jews of the time believed this defeat to be God’s punishment for the death of the revered baptizer.⁴⁰

The gospels present John as having had a circle of close disciples in addition to the crowds of followers.⁴¹ Later observers record the existence of daily baptizing communities in many areas east of the Jordan river who regarded John as the most important of God’s prophets. For centuries the majority of these communities lived in what is now Southern Iraq, along the Euphrates River.⁴² Their populations grew steadily lower in the face of terrible persecutions from Christians and Muslims over the centuries. These “Nasoreans”, as they refer to themselves, became an endangered religion beginning with the massive disruptions and forced displacements as a result of the United States’ 2003 invasion of Iraq.⁴³

The Teacher of Righteousness and the Essene Peshers

Artist depiction of Essenes practicing ritual baptism

The Essene communities had bishops as overseers on the local level, but the Dead Sea Scrolls additionally describe a higher level governing body composed of three priests who are known as the community’s “pillars” or “foundations”. Alongside them are a group of twelve men who form a sort of elite council. But the Essene leader most often referenced by the scrolls is The Teacher of Righteousness—or possibly “The Zadokite Teacher” since Zadok means righteousness or justness.⁴⁴

Artist depiction of Essenes sharing their ritual common meal

The scrolls do not reveal any biographical information about this Teacher of Righteousness nor do they supply his name. This is keeping with the scrolls’ general policy of avoiding the use of anyone’s real name. Because of this, it is not possible to be absolutely sure when this Teacher lived, who he was, or whether perhaps it was more of a title—a position fulfilled by different people at different times. The Teacher is said to have been endowed by God with a special power to interpret the meaning of the scriptures.⁴⁵

Artist depiction of Essene scribes listening to the idiosyncratic interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures by the Teachor of Righteousness

These idiosyncratic scriptural interpretations survive among the discovered scrolls in documents known as peshers (literally “interpretations”). Some of these peshers focus entirely on one particular book of the Bible and systematically quote passages of the book and after each, preface their teaching with the phrase “Interpreted, this means…”. Other peshers revolve around a central topic. They quote and put forth interpretions of scriptural passages drawn from several different biblical books. Generally the meanings discerned by the Teacher of Righteousness have to do with the main concerns of the Essenes: the imminent arrival of the End Times, judgment, resurrection, the messiah, etc.⁴⁶

Artist depiction of a post-resurrection Jesus appearing to the disciples, teaching them how to idiosyncratically interpret the writings of the Hebrew scriptures

This mining of scriptures for passages with secret meanings relevant to the present and future, and the practice of taking passages out of context in order to derive a description of or prediction about the messiah and End Times is a practice unknown to history before these Essene writings, but would go on to be a cornerstone practice of Christianity.⁴⁷ The Gospel of Luke has the resurrected Jesus tell his disciples “Everything written about me in the law of Moses and the prophets and the psalms must be fulfilled”⁴⁸ even though on a plain reading it is abundantly clear that nothing is written of Jesus in the Hebrew Bible.

“Then he opened their minds so they could understand the scriptures,” the author of Luke continues, with Jesus granting his disciples the power to find these sorts of secret meanings in the scriptures the way the Teacher of Righteousness did. To take just one example of this type of interpretation, the gospels present Jesus as saying to his disciples: “Thus it stands written that the Christ would suffer and would rise from the dead on the third day”.⁴⁹ But nothing in the original context of the bits of scripture being referenced here has anything whatsoever to do with Jesus or any messiah at all.

Continue Reading:

Chapter 8: Finding the Messiah

Footnotes

1
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
2
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
3
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
4
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
5
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
6
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
7
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
8
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
9
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
10
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
11
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
12
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
13
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
14
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
15
Gutierrez, J.M.B.(2018). Messianic Expectations: From the Second Temple Era Through the Early Centuries of the Common Era. Independently Published.
16
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
17
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
18
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
19
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
20
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
21
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
22
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
23
Luke 2:1-5. The Bible. New International Version.
24
Gier, N.F. (1987). God, Reason, and the Evangelicals: The Case Against Evangelical Rationalism. University Press of America.
25
Matthew 2:1. The Bible. New International Version.
26
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
27
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
28
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
29
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
30
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
31
Dexinger, F. (2019). Reflections on Relpationship Between Qumran and Samaritan Messianology. The Samaritans. https://www.the-samaritans.net/2019/12/12/reflections-on-the-relationship-between-qumran-and-samaritan-messianology-by-ferdinand-dexinger/
32
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
33
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
34
Finkbeiner, D. (2007) A Synopsis on the Essenes from Philo, Josephus, and Pliny the Elder. University of Pennsylvania. https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rak//courses/735/Historiography/EsseneSynopsis.htm
35
Boccaccini, G. (1998). Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism
36
Boccaccini, G. (1998). Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism
37
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
38
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
39
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
40
Whiston, W. (1999). The New Complete Works of Josephus. Kregel Publications.
41
John 1:35-37. The Bible. New International Version.
42
Drower, Ethel Stephana (1960). The secret Adam, a study of Nasoraean gnosis (PDF). Clarendon Press. Archived:https://web.archive.org/web/20140306132110/http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Adam-A-Study-of-Nasoraen-Gnosis.pdf
43
Crawford, Angus (4 March 2007). Iraq’s Mandaeans ‘face extinction’. BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6412453.stm
44
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
45
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
46
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
47
Eisenman, R. (1998). James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Penguin.
48
Luke 24:44. The Bible. New International Version.
49
Luke 24:45-46. The Bible. New International Version.