Chapter 2
The Persian Period
The Persian Period
In the mid-500s BCE, an obscure Persian prince in the eastern extremity of the Babylonian Empire began a rapid rise to prominence. Successfully leading his surrounding neighbors in a revolt from Babylonian rule, he quickly went on to lead armies in a successful invasion of lands as far west as Greek Anatolia (today’s Turkey), and as far east as the borders of India. When he decisively defeated the Babylonians at the Battle of Opis, he then marched his forces unopposed into the city of Babylon, taking control of its subject lands, and thereby establishing the largest empire the world had yet known. In just 14 more years, Egypt too would become subsumed as another part of the mighty and sprawling Persian Empire.1Waters, M. (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press.
The Bible paints a picture of Cyrus as a messiah (“savior”) of the Israelites, who magnanimously allowed them to return home from their “Babylonian Captivity”.2Isaiah 45:13. The Bible. New International Version. As has become abundantly clear, there are always strong reasons to question Biblical accounts of history. The notion that masses of Israelites, after 70 to 100 years or more would voluntarily uproot themselves to “return” to an ancestral home they had never themselves known—where they held no land and had no standing—strains credulity on the face of it, and is unsupported by evidence.3Davies, P.R. (1992). In Search of “Ancient Israel”: A Study in Biblical Origins. A&C Black.
This is not to say the whole idea of Cyrus and his successor emperors sending peoples to settle the devastated and sparsely-populated former lands of Judah and Samaria is entirely off-base. The Persians sought to develop and exploit all the lands “Beyond the River”—the name they gave all lands between the Euphrates River and the Mediterranean Sea. Judah was of particular interest, not merely for its valuable olive oil production, but because of its defensible position near the border with Egypt which was constantly threatening to break free of Persian control. For these reasons, it was imperative that the local government and power structure in Judah be 100% dependable and loyal to the emperor.4Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
As the Assyrians had done after conquering the northern Israelites 250 years earlier, the Persians selected peoples from other parts of their empire to install as new noble and priestly classes to take over the crucial institutions of local government, military, and religion. These newcomers may have included some Israelites who had fully assimilated into Persian culture and won the trust of their overlords, but most were likely from other points of origin.5Davies, P.R. (1992). In Search of “Ancient Israel”: A Study in Biblical Origins. A&C Black. Unable to speak the local language Hebrew, it was at this time that the language of business and the government in Judah switched to match that of the empire: Aramaean (that is to say Syrian), which would go on to be adopted by all the people of Judah, Samaria, and would eventually be the language of the first Christians.6Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
To say there was friction between the native Israelites—who had stayed behind as peasants and shepherds–and the incoming elites would be an understatement. Efforts to rebuild Jerusalem and its walls were stymied by armed local attackers who must have seen this project from their perspective as a foreign act of oppression. But the walls did get completed, and within 100 years, Jerusalem had a temple to Yahweh. Such temples were vital to empires like Persia, for they acted as tax collection centers as well as treasuries storing government funds and accumulated wealth. In Jerusalem, the Persians saw a capital not just of Judah, but a major regional city in the Beyond the River province.7Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
Persian Religion: Zoroastrianism
The religion of the Persians stood out from all other forms of worship in the ancient world. Its founding figure is said to have been a prophet named Zoroaster who lived in the extreme northeast of Persia (near today’s Turkmenistan and Afghanistan) sometime between 1500 and 1000 BCE. He is credited with reforming the polytheistic faith he inherited, preaching that there is only a single omnipotent god Ahura Mazda (“Wise Lord”). Zoroastrianism is, therefore, considered the world’s first monotheistic religion. But this is not to say that the religion does not also include a great many other supernatural figures, divine or otherwise. In fact, Zoroastrian theology is rigorously dualist, seeing every aspect of life as part of a struggle between the righteous Forces of Light and the evil Forces of Darkness. Leading the latter group is Ahriman (“Destruction”), who presides over whole armies of lesser evil spirits (“daevas” or demons), who from the time of creation have continuously sought to undo the great works of Ahura Mazda.8Boyce, M. (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 1: The Early Period. Brill.
Thanks to the Bible and other Persian propaganda of the time, Cyrus’s empire has garnered a reputation for great religious tolerance among its many and varied subject peoples. But this characterization is exaggerated.9Fitzpatrick-McKinley, A. (2015). Empire, Power and Indigenous Elites: A Case Study of the Nehemiah Memoir. Brill. That tolerance could be and was revoked at any sign of a revolt. When Cyrus took Babylon, for instance, he had first laid the groundwork by using pro-Persian prophets there to preach to the Babylonians that the high Babylonian god Marduk was angry with the king of Babylon, and that Marduk was bringing them a savior in the form of Cyrus. After the conquest, the Persians made great efforts to equate Marduk with Ahura Mazda, and reduced the other Babylonian gods to the level of lesser supernatural beings. The Persians then funded and controlled the Babylonian priesthood as well. But when the Babylonians attempted to revolt in 484 BCE, Emperor Xerxes ordered a retribution that was swift and severely punishing, including the destruction of several great temples and removal of Babylonian’s main cultic image, the sacred golden Statue of Marduk.10Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
Zoroastrianism is an aniconic faith, meaning the use of images in worship is strictly forbidden, and the Persians were known at times to oppress temples using statues and other religious icons if polytheism was being practiced. This strong bias against imagery was unknown elsewhere in the ancient Near East, and was not previously practiced by the ancient Israelites who had created depictions of Yahweh in the form of a man or symbolically represented as a bull. But aniconism would become just one of the many uniquely Persian doctrines adopted into the new religion of the Jews.11Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
The Origin of Jewish Monotheism
The Persians took a keen interest in strongly influencing the people and religion of their prized new temple (and regional tax collecting) state of Judah. This meddling did not all take place at once, but was introduced piecemeal throughout the 200 years in which the Jews were loyal subjects of Persia.
First and foremost, as with the Babylonians’ high god Marduk, the Persian agents who were settled in Jerusalem to control the government and priesthood brought with them a strict monotheism that they pushed on the local populace. In Judah at this time, there were still two different gods worshiped as the head of the pantheon by different subgroups: El the traditional Levantine chief deity, and Yahweh the storm and creator god imported from the south. Rather than choose one or the other, there was a decision to merge these two gods, and equate them with Ahura Mazda under the name and title Yahweh Elyon (“The Supreme Being” or “God Most High”). Worship of any other deities was outlawed, including the long venerated Baal, Asherah, Chemosh, Tammuz, Astarte, Qos, Anat and many others.12Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
For the native population of Jews who had always practiced their ancestors’ polytheism on their ancestral lands, this top-down introduction of a foreign faith by foreign agents was continually met with strong resistance.13Eames, C. (2019). Discovered: Nehemiah’s Wall. Armstrong Institute of Biblical Archeology. https://armstronginstitute.org/204-discovered-nehemiahs-wall But it was the Persian-sponsored settlers who held power in both the palace and the temples. They responded by unflaggingly pushing a fiction that it was they who were the descendants of the ruling class and priests who had been carried off to Babylon, and that they had now returned to teach the “people of the land” (as they dismissively referred to them) the true religion of their ancestors which they had somehow forgotten in their absence and reverted to dreadful polytheism.14Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
It is in this atmosphere that the Bible’s first writings came about, for they could not have been written any earlier. Only at this point in history, with the patronage of a world power, did the Jerusalem priesthood and nobility have the requisite support and infrastructure to maintain a scribal school that could produce writings of this nature.15Thompson, T. (1999). The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology and the Myth of Israel. Pimlico. As their first matter of business, the Persians did what they had done in other provinces as well: set forth a book of law to establish acceptable order. In Judah, the book of law they thus produced is in fact the earliest version of what we know as the Bible’s book of Deuteronomy.16Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
The Origin of Biblical Writing: The Law
Scholars have long noted an odd quirk of Deuteronomy is that it takes the traditional form of an ancient Near Eastern contract between an overlord nation and its submissive vassal state. That is to say it includes a preamble identifying the overlord, a history of the relationship between the two parties, general obligations of the vassal, specific stipulations, followed by a litany of blessings the vassal can expect for keeping the agreement, and a list of dire curses that will befall them if they do not.17Mann, T.W. (2013). The Book of Torah, Second Edition. Wipf and Stock Publishers. This is quite odd if one thinks of this as purely a religious document, but makes perfect sense as a document of laws imposed by the Persians on the Jews.
Most notably Deuteronomy is obsessed with the above-mentioned novel (to the native Jews) idea of exclusive monotheistic worship of Yahweh. Strict loyalty to the Supreme God, it promises, will be rewarded with great national prosperity,18Deuteronomy 28:1-13. The Bible. New International Version. while any deviance will be met with not just personal misfortune but national ruin.19Deuteronomy 28:15-68. The Bible. New International Version. This point is driven home over and over again, making it clear that to the Persians, establishing monotheism was the most important first step in making a foreign religion acceptable.
Another key part of Deuteronomy is its prohibitions of certain foods as “unclean” and forbidden while denoting other foods as “clean” and acceptable to consume. This is a notion that is also uniquely attributable to Zoroastrianism,20Daryaee, T. (2012). Food, Purity and Pollution: Zoroastrian Views on the Eating Habits of Others. Iranian Studies, 45(2), 229–242. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44860982 and became adopted with variations by the Jews, and is still practiced to this day . Finally, the other stark distinction laid out in Deuteronomy is between those who worship Yahweh monotheistically and all other people, with marriage and interbreeding between the two groups outlawed on pain of death.21Deuteronomy 7:3-4. The Bible. New International Version.
Deuteronomistic History
The continuing widespread unpopularity of Persian-style monotheism among the native Jews must have been the strongest motivator for the composition of the next books of the Bible to be written. Because they share precisely the mindset and goals of Deuteronomy, these writings have come to be called by scholars the “Deuteronomic History” that stretches across the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings.
We have already seen that throughout the Bible’s unique (and almost entirely inaccurate) telling of the history of the ancient Israelites, a single pattern repeats ad nauseam: the chosen people gravely sin by worshiping a god other than Yahweh, or anger Yahweh by intermarrying with non-Yahweh worshipers, and are then subjected to extreme retribution from their own god.
Only after many years of awful suffering do the Israelites see the error of their ways and call out to Yahweh to save them, which time and time again he does. Except when he doesn’t. The Bible’s writers pin the blame for Babylon’s utter destruction of Jerusalem and all of Judah on the unfaithful populace, for by this time Yahweh has had enough, and he allows the destruction of his own temple and the decimation and enslavement of his people with no salvation in sight—until the arrival of Cyrus the Savior generations later.
Another theme in the Deuteronomic History is one that also seeks to break the patterns of worship in the traditional Israelite religion. While for centuries the Israelites had worshiped at shrines and temples all across the land (and likely in foreign cities as well), the writers of Deuteronomy stress that there is only one legitimate place of worship for the Jews.22Deuteronomy 12:5. The Bible. New International Version. Practicing religious rites at any other site is another grave sin that Yahweh is said to find infuriating. This consolidation of worship in the Judahite capital had everything to do with orderly tax collection and retaining strict priestly control of the new faith.
All of this pointed storytelling and promotion of novel doctrines acted as propaganda to win over (with both enticement and terrible threats) the many local holdouts in accepting the new Persian-crafted religion.23Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism In one of the later-written Bible books that may contain a kernel of truth, two characters from this period named Nehemiah and Ezra—both Persian officials—oversee the reconstruction of the Jerusalem walls and temple, and then are said to provide the first reading of The Law to a great crowd of Jews who are portrayed as hearing it for the first time.24Nehemiah 8:1-8. The Bible. New International Version. This can strike the reader as an oddity, since the Deuteronomic History projects Jewish monotheism backward in time, anachronistically foisting it on to the purely polytheistic ancient Israelites. But this squares with the Persian settlers’ narrative that the native Jews had somehow forgotten their own history and religion, and it was up to the “returners” to set them straight.
The Prophets and the Day of the Lord
In addition to Persian-commissioned prophets preaching Persian-sponsored messages in Judah during this period, it is also the time when the Bible’s first books of the prophets were written. Just as with monotheism and other religious innovations, most of these prophets were consciously retrojected to an earlier era, giving them an air of venerable tradition rather than novelty,25Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism and conveniently allowing them to “predict” a future that had already come to pass so as to establish their perceived credibility.26Doak, B.R. (2014). Predicting the Past, Remembering the Future: Vaticinia ex eventu in the Historiographic Traditions of the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/1658530/Predicting_the_Past_Remembering_the_Future_Vaticinia_ex_eventu_in_the_Historiographic_Traditions_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_and_the_Ancient_Near_East
The Zoroastrian worldview was markedly different from that of ancient Israel. Human history was seen as a 6,000-year period broken into a set number of inevitable stages, the last of which was rapidly approaching. These End Times would be ushered in by the appearance of a Saoshyant (“savior” or “messiah”) who would lead the Forces of Light to victory in a final epic battle against all the Forces of Darkness.27Mehr, F. (2003). The Zoroastrian Tradition: An Introduction to the Ancient Wisdom of Zarathushtra. Mazda Publishers.
This would be swiftly followed by a resurrection of all the dead to allow their participation in Judgment Day. At that event, based on their lifetime of thoughts, words, and deeds recorded in the Book of Life, each person would be welcomed to paradise to enjoy a blissful afterlife, or would be sentenced to eternal torture in Hell.28Boyce. M. (2001). Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Psychology Press.
Not all aspects of these Zoroastrian doctrines were subsumed into the Judaism of the Bible. The vast majority of the Old Testament employs the worldview that stretches back as far as the ancient Sumerians, in which all humans are bound to live out an endless afterlife in a dreary netherworld realm known as Sheol.29Sheol. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/sheol Ahriman (a Satan equivalent) and his supernatural “Forces of Darkness”30Sheol. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/sheol are entirely absent, and instead, all things both good and evil are attributed to Yahweh.31Isaiah 45:7. The Bible. New International Version.
But in the books of prophets we do see the burgeoning notion of a coming “Day of the Lord”32Isaiah 13:9. The Bible. New International Version. or a “Day of Vengeance”33Jeremiah 46:10. The Bible. New International Version. that prophets long for when Yahweh will provide comeuppance to all the enemies of the Jews and reward the faithful.34Joel 2:28-32. The Bible. New International Version. This concept is nowhere fully explicated, nor is the notion of an End Time resurrection of the dead, though hints of it are given.35Joel 2:28-32. The Bible. New International Version.
We will now turn our attention, however, to the writings of a subset of Jews who, in the wake of the Persian period, incorporated a great deal more Zoroastrian theology into their devout Judaism, and would eventually bequeath their particular worldview to the first Christians.
The Book of Watchers
Composed around 300 BCE, a Jewish religious writing known as The Book of Watchers became widely read and influential. Among many Jews and the earliest Christians it was treated as scripture. But for reasons that will later be discussed, a decision was made many centuries later not to include it in the Hebrew Bible canon (which was not settled on by Rabbinic Jews until at least 200 CE).36Carr, D. M. (2011). Formation of the Hebrew Bible: A New Reconstruction. Oxford University Press. Here in this ancient writing we find almost the entire Zoroastrian worldview fully melded with Judaism, and can recognize a great many Persian doctrines that would find their way into Christianity, separating it from what would one day be known as Rabbinic or mainstream Judaism.
The narrative of the book is a longform version of a bizarre tale later summarized with extreme brevity in Genesis 6:1-6.37Genesis 6:1-6. The Bible. New International Version. A number of generations after the creation of humankind, a supernatural group of beings referred to as the “sons of God” are said to lust after human women and have sex with them, leading to the creation of a hybrid race of giants.
These giants are explained by the writer of Genesis to be the heroes of ancient legends. Some are even said to have survived the Great Flood. How such a thing was possible, like the rest of the story, is left unexplained, though later non-Biblical Jewish folktales would run with this notion to explain the appearance of the giant Og of Bashan in the book of Numbers.38Mayim Archonim. The Amazing Story of Og, the Giant King of Bashan. https://www.mayimachronim.com/the-giant-og-king-of-bashan/
In The Book of Watchers, these same “sons of God” are referred to as “Watchers”—and are said to be a cohort of 200 angels tasked with monitoring humankind.
Their leader is named Samyaza, and he convinces all his fellow Watchers to swear a binding oath that they will impregnate human women and thereby gain children for themselves.39Winter, J. (2015). The Complete Book of Enoch. Winter Publications. https://ia601001.us.archive.org/19/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf In contrast to the Hebrew Bible where angels lack individual names, we are told the personal names of 20 of the ringleaders among the Watchers in a style reminiscent of Zoroastrian ranked angelology lists.40Kallen, S.A. (2008). Angels. Capstone.
As in Genesis, the resulting offspring are gigantic, but further details are supplied: they are thousands of feet tall, and these voracious giants consume all of the humans’ harvested food, their crops and animals, and then begin eating humans, and even one another. A different chief of the Watchers named Azazel then sins further by revealing forbidden knowledge to the humans, teaching them metallurgy so they can make swords, shields, and armor. He also teaches them how to create and wear jewelry and makeup. Samyaza then teaches them root-cutting and sorcery. Others among The Watchers reveal to them various aspects of astronomy.41Winter, J. (2015). The Complete Book of Enoch. Winter Publications. https://ia601001.us.archive.org/19/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf
Meanwhile in Heaven, four good angels observe the sin and carnage below. For the first time in Jewish literature, we are introduced to Michael, Uriel, Raphael, and Gabriel, figures who in late Biblical and extra-Biblical writings are presented as Yahweh’s archangels—with Michael appearing in the book of Daniel 150 years later42Daniel 12:1. The Bible. New English Translation. and the Revelation of John some 250 years later.43Revelation 12:7. The Bible. New English Translation. Gabriel also later appears as the angel who visits Mary in the Gospel of Luke.44Luke 1:26-27. The Bible. New Interational Version. In The Book of Watchers these archangels now report to God what they’ve seen and urge him to judge humankind and the fallen angels. God pronounces his judgments, first sending Uriel to warn Noah of the coming cataclysmic flood.45Winter, J. (2015). The Complete Book of Enoch. Winter Publications. https://ia601001.us.archive.org/19/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf
Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel are told that they must bind the fallen angels and imprison them until the great judgment at the End Times when they will be cast into the abyss of fire and torment forever. This marks the debut in Jewish literature of the Zoroastrian-imported concept of Hell. The four Jewish archangels introduced here are also obvious parallels of Ahura Mazda’s archangels known as the Amesh Spentas (“Holy Immortals”).46Winter, J. (2015). The Complete Book of Enoch. Winter Publications. https://ia601001.us.archive.org/19/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf
Enoch
An “apocalypse” (from Greek ἀποκάλυψις, meaning “revelation”) is a genre of writing pioneered by the Persians then adopted by the Jews.47Cohn, N. (2001). Cosmos, Chaos, and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith. Yale University Press. Though the most famous example today is that of the Revelation of John which is found at the end of the New Testament, dozens of other Jewish apocalypses preceded it,48Wikipedia: List of Non-canonical Jewish Apocalyptic Writings https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature#Non-canonical and the first of those is found in The Book of Watchers.
One of the defining features of an apocalypse is that it relates in detail the story of a single individual—typically a revered figure from the past—as they are taken by an angelic guide up to the highest heaven where God sits enthroned. The genre’s name refers to the revealing of secret knowledge and wisdom that is imparted to the human during his encounter, which often comes in the form of visions of the past and the future.49Apocalyptic Literature. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/apocalyptic-literature The first known instance of the genre is in the Zoroastrian scriptures when Zoroaster himself visits heaven.50The teaching of Zoroaster: Complete Edition. (2023). (n.p.): Sanzani Edizioni.
In this first Jewish apocalypse, it is an early Biblical patriarch named Enoch who plays this role. Despite the fact that Genesis would later relate almost nothing about this figure, he nonetheless stands out there for the description that—unlike the rest of the patriarchs—instead of dying, the text cryptically reads “He walked with God and he was no more, for God took him.” Enoch is introduced in The Book of Watchers when God calls on him to go to the Watchers and announce to them the penalty for their actions.
This Enoch dutifully does. And, trembling, the Watchers then convince Enoch to beseech God for their forgiveness. So Enoch makes their case, but God is unmoved and the punishment goes unaltered: they will be tied up and held captive in a dark subterranean abode until Judgment Day when they will be thrown into the fires of hell.51Winter, J. (2015). The Complete Book of Enoch. Winter Publications. https://ia601001.us.archive.org/19/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf
The fate of the Watchers’ giant offspring is then pronounced: they will die and become immaterial evil spirits roaming the Earth, attacking humankind, and afflicting them with destruction and oppression.
Enoch is then lifted up to the heavenly throne room which he describes in lush and detailed descriptions that will be echoed in later apocalyptic writings such as Daniel and the Revelation of John. Uriel and Raphael then guide him on a whirlwind tour looking down on the Earth below.
He is shown all the various lands and animals from every location in the world, and then shown the supports which hold up the Earth. He is brought back up to the sky to behold the places where wind, rain, and hail are stored; and he visits all the realms of Heaven above. At one point he is shown a place of suffering—a prison under a lofty mountain where the souls of dead humans are kept to await final judgment.52Winter, J. (2015). The Complete Book of Enoch. Winter Publications. https://ia601001.us.archive.org/19/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf
Over the next few centuries, additional Jewish literature centered around the holy figure of Enoch would be written, eventually to be collected along with related works like Jubilees53Jubilees. Early Jewish Writings. https://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/jubilees.html (that share the same outlook and concerns) into the Book of Enoch,54Winter, J. (2015). The Complete Book of Enoch. Winter Publications. https://ia601001.us.archive.org/19/items/TheCompleteBookOfEnochStandardEnglishVersionJayWinter/The%20Complete%20Book%20of%20Enoch%2C%20Standard%20English%20Version%20-%20Jay%20Winter.pdf offering an especially Zoroastrian-influenced take on the Jewish history and cosmology. Despite their later rejection by Jewish orthodoxy and Christian Catholicism, they survived the ages thanks to their acceptance into the Ethiopian Christian church,55Gottheil, R. & Littmann, E. Ethiopic Book of Enoch. Jewish Encyclopedia. https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5773-enoch-books-of-ethiopic-and-slavonic and being found among the Dead Sea Scrolls56Dillon, G. Book of Enoch | Facts, the Dead Sea Scrolls & the Bible. https://study.com/academy/lesson/book-enoch-history-summary-facts-1.html#:~:text=The%20First%20Book%20of%20Enoch,included%20in%20any%20biblical%20canon. collected by the Essene sect of Jews whom we will learn more about in the chapters to come.
The End of the Persian Period
At its height, the Persian Empire’s western borders stretched across Greek Anatolia and into Europe. The Persian Emperor Xerxes managed to hold the northern Greek mainland of Macedonia for about 25 years. He was even able to sack the city of Athens. But the Persian army and navy was eventually driven back by an alliance of powerful city-states led by Sparta. Tension between the two powers lasted throughout the time of Persia’s empire.57Bivar, A.D.H., Dresden, M.J., & Ghirshman, R. Ancient Iran. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Iran
In another incident in the 400s BCE, some of the Greek states in Anatolia revolted during the reign of Darius I of Persia. The uprising was eventually crushed, and in response, Darius had their Greek temples destroyed, and the leader of the revolt crucified (a Persian punishment later adopted by other nations).58Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
Though the Persian Empire eventually fell, its influence on the world is incalculable. Without their proselytizing of Zoroastrian-style monotheism, there would be no Judaism. And without Judaism and an even heavier mix of Zoroastian beliefs, certainly no Christianity.
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Chapter 3: The Maccabean Revolt
Footnotes
- 1Waters, M. (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press.
- 2Isaiah 45:13. The Bible. New International Version.
- 3Davies, P.R. (1992). In Search of “Ancient Israel”: A Study in Biblical Origins. A&C Black.
- 4Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
- 5Davies, P.R. (1992). In Search of “Ancient Israel”: A Study in Biblical Origins. A&C Black.
- 6Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
- 7Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
- 8Boyce, M. (1989). A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 1: The Early Period. Brill.
- 9Fitzpatrick-McKinley, A. (2015). Empire, Power and Indigenous Elites: A Case Study of the Nehemiah Memoir. Brill.
- 10Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
- 11Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
- 12Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
- 13Eames, C. (2019). Discovered: Nehemiah’s Wall. Armstrong Institute of Biblical Archeology. https://armstronginstitute.org/204-discovered-nehemiahs-wall
- 14Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
- 15Thompson, T. (1999). The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology and the Myth of Israel. Pimlico.
- 16Magee, M.D. How Persia Created Judaism. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/22882969/How_Persia_Created_Judaism
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